Methods for forming miniemulsions and use thereof for delivering bioactive agents

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to methods of forming miniemulsions and use of the miniemulsions as a delivery system for bioactive agents. In particular, the present invention relates to methods for forming a miniemulsion comprising providing a first phase comprising a hydrophilic surfactant, lipophillic surfactant and water and a second phase comprising a lipid, wherein said miniemulsion comprises emulsified particles having a mean diameter of 1 μm or less.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates to methods of forming miniemulsions anduse of the miniemulsions as a delivery system for bioactive agents. Inparticular, the present disclosure relates to methods of formingminiemulsions having emulsified particles of less than 1 μm from a firstphase comprising a hydrophilic surfactant and a lipophilic surfactantand a second phase comprising a lipid.

BACKGROUND

An emulsion is a dispersed system consisting of two immiscible liquids,in which small droplets of one liquid is dispersed in a second liquid.Emulsions with a droplet size in the range of less than 1 μm are oftenreferred to in the literature as miniemulsions, nano-emulsions,microemulsions, etc. These “miniemulsions” are formed by dispersion orhigh-energy emulsion methods such as high-shear stirring, high-pressurehomogenisers and ultrasound generators.

Miniemulsions are of great interest as pharmaceutical and cosmeticformulations. In the pharmaceutical industry a major problem is theefficient and efficacious delivery of drugs. It is well known that manypromising drugs never make it to a final product because of difficultiesin delivery. The problems with drug delivery tend to be related to thephysical or chemical properties of the drug, administrative matters,such as approval for use, excipients, and engineering issues. Some ofthe major challenges of drug delivery are poor solubility, short invitro (shelf-life) and in vivo (half-life) stability, lowbioavailability, unacceptable side effects (due to systemic delivery)and regulatory issues.

A drug delivery system or formulation should have the followingcharacteristics: ease of production, applicability to as many drugs aspossible, physical stability, excipients that are well tolerated andaccepted by regulatory authorities and available for large scaleproduction allowable by regulatory authorities. Miniemulsions haveproperties that make them ideal for use in drug delivery includingthermodynamic stability (long shelf-life), ease of formation, highsurface area (high solubilisation capacity) and very small droplet size.

However, there are problems associated with the available miniemulsionformulations. High levels of non-active compounds are a hazard incosmetics and drug delivery systems and many miniemulsions have highsurfactant concentrations and in most cases have a high alcohol, solventand co-solvent content in order to maintain stability. Further, manyminiemulsions are created using high-energy processes, such as highpressures and high temperatures. For example, high temperatures are usedto induce stability, which makes commercial production expensive.Additionally, miniemulsions created using processes such as ultrasonicemulsification, which are only useful for creating small batches, meansreproducibility of the emulsion during commercial scale up is difficult.

Accordingly, the methods that are currently available for makingminiemulsions that are feasible for formulating product are constrained.As such, there is a need for improved methods and formulations forminiemulsions for use as delivery systems for bioactive agents.

SUMMARY

The methods disclosed herein relate to miniemulsion formulations formedby low-energy methods that are suitable for large commercial production,have a low surfactant content, are stable without refrigeration for upto three years and can be used to deliver a wide-range of bioactiveagents by a variety of routes. Accordingly, the methods disclosed hereinprovide, in some aspects, a miniemulsion that is suitable for use as adelivery system for bioactive agents.

In a first aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion comprising:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein said miniemulsion comprises emulsified particles having        a mean diameter of less than 1 μm.

It will be understood that any manner adapted to form a miniemulsionknown in the art could be used to form the miniemulsion, for example,stirring or other suitable mixing means. Preferably, the manner adaptedto form a miniemulsion is a low-energy manner. Accordingly, in oneembodiment, the manner adapted to form a miniemulsion comprises addingthe second phase to the first phase as a continuous flow or continuousstream during continuous mixing. In another embodiment, the manneradapted to form a miniemulsion comprises adding the second phase to thefirst phase under controlled flow during continuous mixing. In a furtherembodiment, manner adapted to form a miniemulsion comprises adding thesecond phase drop wise into the first phase during continuous mixing.Generally, the continuous mixing is performed by a stirrer at a speed ofbetween about 5,000 rpm and about 20,000 rpm.

Accordingly, a miniemulsion according to the present disclosure can beformed in the absence of high temperatures or pressures. In oneembodiment, steps a.-d. are conducted at a temperature of less thanabout 80° C., preferably less than about 60° C. and more preferablysteps a.-d. are conducted at a temperature of 40° C. or less. In anotherembodiment, steps a.-d. are conducted at an atmospheric pressure of lessthan about 1,000 kPa, preferably about less than about 500 kPa and morepreferably steps a.-d. are conducted at normal atmospheric pressure(about 101 kPa). In still another embodiment, the method does notcomprise a cooling step. In a particular embodiment, step d. isconducted at a temperature of 40° C. or less and at normal atmosphericpressure (about 101 kPa).

Therefore, in one embodiment there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion comprising:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein step d. is conducted at a temperature of 40° C. or less        and at normal atmospheric pressure (about 101 kPa), and wherein        said miniemulsion comprises emulsified particles having a mean        diameter of less than 1 μm.

It would be appreciated that any hydrophilic or lipophilic surfactantmay be used in the formation of the first phase. While any hydrophilicsurfactant know in the art could be used, in one embodiment thehydrophilic surfactant is selected from the group consisting ofpolyoxyethylene alkyl ethers; sorbitan fatty acid esters;polyoxyethylene alkyl phenols; polyoxyethylene glycol esters;polyoxypropylene glycol alkyl ethers; polyglycerol fatty acid esters;polyoxyethylene glycerides; polyoxyethylene sterols; polyoxyethylenevegetable oils; polyoxyethylene hydrogenated vegetable oils; propyleneglycol alginate; salts of fatty acids; lauryl macrogolglycerides; andmixtures thereof.

Similarly, any lipophilic surfactant known in the art could be used.However, in one embodiment, the lipophilic surfactant is selected fromthe group consisting of fatty acids; acetylated glycerol fatty acidesters; lower alcohol fatty acids esters; trans-esterification productsof fatty acids; hydrogenated vegetable oils; triglycerides andpolyalkylene polyols; sterols and sterol derivatives; pentaerythritolfatty acid esters and polyalkylene glycol ethers; monoglycerides andacetylated; lecithins and hydrogenated lecithins; lysolecithin andhydrogenated lysolecithins; lysophospholipids and derivatives thereof;phospholipids and derivatives thereof; and mixtures thereof. In oneaspect, the hydrophilic surfactant is a non-ionic surfactant such aspolysorbate 80 and the lipophilic surfactant is a phosphotidylcholine.

In some embodiments, the method relates to a miniemulsion that has a lowsurfactant content. In one embodiment, the miniemulsion comprises lessthan 10% w/w surfactant. In another embodiment, the miniemulsioncomprises between about 1% w/w and about 5% w/w lipophilic surfactantand between about 0.5% w/w and about 5% w/w hydrophilic surfactant. Inone embodiment, the method may further comprise the addition of asolvent to either the first or second phase.

In some embodiments, the method relates to a miniemulsion that has ahigh oil content. In one embodiment, the miniemulsion comprises at leastabout 0.5% w/w, or for example, from about 0.5% w/w to about 40% w/w,from about 0.5% w/w to about 15% w/w, or from about 15% w/w to about 25%w/w oil, or from about 25% w/w to about 40% w/w oil.

The lipid may be any lipid known in the art including vegetable derivedlipids, animal derived lipids, and mineral oils. Preferably the lipid isa vegetable oil comprising medium or long-chain fatty acids withaliphatic tails of 6 carbons or longer. Examples of vegetable oilssuitable for use in the present method include coconut oil, castor oil,arachis oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, rapeseedoil, including Canola oil, safflower oil, soybean oil, liquid paraffinand sunflower oil and their derivatives. In one embodiment, the oil issoybean oil. In another embodiment, the lipid is an animal derived lipidsuch as phosphatidylcholine.

The emulsified particles can have a wide variety of shapes andstructures having sizes, in general, that are 1 μm or less. In oneaspect, emulsified particles have a mean particle size of less than 1μm. In one embodiment, the mean particle size is between about 250 nmand 1 μm. In another embodiment, the range of mean particle size is fromabout 300 nm to about 700 nm. In yet another embodiment, the meanparticle size is about 600 nm. In a further embodiment, at least 70% ofthe particles in the miniemulsion have a diameter of 1 μm or less. In astill further embodiment, at least 75% of the particles in theminiemulsion have a diameter of less than 1 μm.

Accordingly, in one aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion comprising:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein the range of mean particle sizes is from about 250 nm to        about 700 nm.

In another aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion comprising:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein at least 70% of the particles in the miniemulsion have a        diameter of 1 μm or less.

The method disclosed herein provides a miniemulsion that is stablewithout refrigeration for up to three years. Therefore, the miniemulsiondoes not coalesce and maintains particle size when stored at atemperature greater than 4° C. In one embodiment, the miniemulsion isstable at a temperature greater than 4° C. for at least 1 month,preferably at least 6 months and more preferably the miniemulsion isstable at a temperature greater than 4° C. for at least 1 year. Inanother embodiment, the miniemulsion is stable at a temperature greaterthan 4° C. for at least two years. In another embodiment, theminiemulsion is stable at a temperature greater than 4° C. for more thantwo years.

In a second aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion consisting essentially of:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein said miniemulsion comprises emulsified particles having        a mean diameter of less than 1 μm.

In one embodiment, the steps of the method are carried out in aparticular order such that multilayered and/or spherical emulsifiedparticles are formed. In accordance with this embodiment steps (a), (b)and (c) are performed before step (d). Therefore, a first phase isformed comprising a hydrophilic surfactant, water and lipophilicsurfactant and a second phase is formed comprising lipid, before thefirst and second phases are combined in step (d).

Accordingly, in one embodiment there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion comprising:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein steps (a), (b) and (c) are performed before step (d),        and wherein said miniemulsion comprises emulsified particles        having a mean diameter of less than 1 μm.

In another embodiment, there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion comprising:

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophillic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophillic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein said miniemulsion comprises emulsified particles having        a mean diameter of less than 1 μm, and wherein said emulsified        particles are multilayered and/or spherical.

In some aspects, the miniemulsion described herein may be used as adelivery system for one or more bioactive agents. While a person skilledin the art would understand that a bioactive agent could be incorporatedinto the miniemulsion via the first, second or both phases, in oneembodiment, the second phase further comprises a bioactive agent. Inanother embodiment, the miniemulsion comprises between about 0.2% w/wand 15% w/w bioactive agent.

Accordingly, in a third aspect, there is disclosed a method for forminga delivery system for bioactive agents comprising;

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophilic        surfactant dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing a lipophilic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid and a bioactive        agent;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein said delivery system comprises emulsified particles        having a mean diameter of less then 1 μm.

In one embodiment, there is disclosed a method for forming a deliverysystem for bioactive agents comprising;

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophilic        surfactant dispersed in water and a bioactive agent;    -   b. dispersing a lipophilic surfactant in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion,        wherein said delivery system comprises emulsified particles        having a mean diameter of less then 1 μm.

It will be understood that the presently described delivery system maybe used to deliver any bioactive agent. In one embodiment, the bioactiveagent is a lipophilic pharmaceutical. In another embodiment, thebioactive agent is lidocaine or lignocaine.

As a result of having particles of 1 μm or less, the delivery system maybe used to administer bioactive agents by a variety of routes, forexample, topically, enterally, nasally or parenterally. In oneembodiment, topical administration is via aerosol or spray.

In a fourth aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming a deliverysystem for bioactive agents comprising;

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising polysorbate 80        dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing phosphotidylcholine in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising soybean oil and        lidocaine;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion comprising between about 0.5% w/w        and about 5% w/w polysorbate 80, between about 1% w/w and about        5% w/w phosphotidylcholine, between about 0.5% w/w and about 25%        w/w soybean oil, and between about 0.2% w/w and about 5% w/w        lidocaine,        wherein said delivery system comprises emulsified particles        having a mean diameter of less then 1 μm.

In fifth aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming a deliverysystem for bioactive agents consisting of;

-   -   a. providing an aqueous phase comprising polysorbate 80        dispersed in water;    -   b. dispersing phosphotidylcholine in said aqueous phase to        provide a first phase;    -   c. providing a second phase comprising soybean oil and        lidocaine;    -   d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner        adapted to form a miniemulsion comprising between about 0.5% w/w        and about 5% w/w polysorbate 80, between about 1% w/w and about        5% w/w phosphotidylcholine, between about 0.5% w/w and about 25%        w/w soybean oil, and between about 0.2% w/w and about 5% w/w        lidocaine, wherein said delivery system comprises emulsified        particles having a mean diameter of less then 1 μm.

It will be understood that in one aspect there is disclosed compositionscomprising emulsified particles produced by the above described methods.

In a further aspect, the delivery system described above is formulatedinto a composition useful in the treatment or relief of pain in asubject in need thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1: Photograph of a miniemulsion by fluorescence microscope (400×).

FIG. 2: Photograph of a miniemulsion by fluorescence microscope (400×).

FIG. 3: Photograph of a miniemulsion by phase contrast light microscope(1000×).

FIG. 4: Stability of lignocaine in a miniemulsion stored at roomtemperature and 4° C. over 322 days.

FIG. 5: Particle size distribution for miniemulsions prepared in batchsizes of 150 g and 1 kg.

FIG. 6: Particle size distribution graph for a miniemulsion prepared ina batch size of 150 g.

FIG. 7: Particle size distribution graph for a miniemulsion prepared ina batch size of 1 kg.

FIG. 8: Particle size distribution for a miniemulsion prepared in abatch size of 1 kg and stored at room temperature for 30 months.

FIG. 9: Particle size distribution for a miniemulsion preparedcontaining 40% w/w lipid.

FIG. 10: Distribution of final pain scores from patients receiving NSSpray and Xylocaine Spray.

FIG. 11: Average patient satisfaction scores from patients receiving NSSpray and Xylocaine Spray (95% CI; 1=very satisfied and 5=veryunsatisfied).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

It is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited toparticularly exemplified methods and may, of course, vary. It is also tobe understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to belimiting which will be limited only by the appended claims.

All publications, patents and patent applications cited herein, whethersupra or infra, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.However, publications mentioned herein are cited for the purpose ofdescribing and disclosing the protocols and reagents which are reportedin the publications and which might be used in connection with thedisclosed methods. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admissionthat what is disclosed herein is not entitled to antedate suchdisclosure by virtue of prior invention.

In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will bemade to a number of terms that shall be defined to have the followingmeanings:

The term “comprising” is meant including, but not limited to, whateverfollows the word “comprising”. Thus, use of the term “comprising”indicates that the listed elements are required or mandatory, but thatother elements are optional and may or may not be present. By“consisting of” is meant including, and limited to, whatever follows thephrase “consisting of”. Thus, the phrase “consisting of” indicates thatthe listed elements are required or mandatory, and that no otherelements may be present. By “consisting essentially of” is meantincluding any elements listed after the phrase, and limited to otherelements that do not interfere with or contribute to the activity oraction specified in the disclosure for the listed elements. Thus, thephrase “consisting essentially of” indicates that the listed elementsare required or mandatory, but that other elements are optional and mayor may not be present depending upon whether or not they affect theactivity or action of the listed elements.

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appendedclaims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and the include plural referentsunless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example,reference to “a bioactive agent” includes mixtures of two or more suchagents, and the like.

Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value,and/or to “about” another particular value. When such a range isexpressed, another aspect includes from the one particular value and/orto the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed asapproximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understoodthat the particular value forms another aspect. It will be furtherunderstood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant bothin relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the otherendpoint.

“Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described eventor circumstance can or cannot occur, and that the description includesinstances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances where itdoes not.

A weight percent of a component, unless specifically stated to thecontrary, is based on the total weight of the formulation or compositionin which the component is included.

A “bioactive agent” refers to an agent that has biological activity. Thebiological agent can be used to treat, diagnose, cure, mitigate, prevent(i.e., prophylactically), ameliorate, modulate, or have an otherwisefavorable effect on a disease, disorder, infection, and the like.Bioactive agents also include those substances which affect thestructure or function of a subject, or a pro-drug, which becomesbioactive or more bioactive after it has been placed in a predeterminedphysiological environment.

A “low-energy manner” refers to a process that does not involve heatingto a high tempertaure, cooling or the use of high pressures. Examples oflow-energy manner adapted to form a miniemulsion useful in the presentmethod include those that are performed at room temperature, ie. about25° C., those that do not require a significant heating step, ie.heating greater than about 40° C., and/or a cooling step and those thatare performed at about normal atmospheric pressure at sea level, ie.about 101.325 kPa.

The term “refrigeration” refers to storing a microemulsion at atemperature that is lower than room temperature, ie. less than about 25°C. More specifically, refrigeration may relate to storing amicroemulsion at 10° C. or less, and in particular 4° C. or less.Accordingly, the term “without refrigeration” relates to a temperatureat least greater than 4° C.

In the broadest aspect, there is disclosed a method for forming aminiemulsion. The method involves preparing an aqueous phase bycombining water and one or more hydrophilic surfactants. In oneembodiment the surfactant component comprises a hydrophilic surfactant.In another embodiment, the surfactant component consists of a singlehydrophilic surfactant, and in another embodiment, the hydrophilicsurfactant component comprises more than one hydrophilic surfactant. Thehydrophilic surfactant may be selected from but not limited to the groupcomprising of polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers; sorbitan fatty acid estersknown as Polysorbates; polyoxyethylene alkyl phenols; polyoxyethyleneglycol esters; polyoxypropylene glycol alkyl ethers; polyglycerol fattyacid esters; polyoxyethylene glycerides; polyoxyethylene sterols;polyoxyethylene vegetable oils; polyoxyethylene hydrogenated vegetableoils; propylene glycol alginate; salts of fatty acids; laiirylmacrogolglycerides, or mixtures thereof. Preferably, the hydrophilicsurfactant is a non-ionic surfactant. Non-limiting examples of suitablehydrophilic non-ionic surfactants that may be suitable for use in thepresent method include sorbitan fatty acid esters (Polysorbates),polyoxyethylene glycol, polyoxyethylene glycol alkyl ethers, andpolyoxypropylene glycol alkyl ethers. In one embodiment, the non-ionicsurfactant used is polysorbate 80 (Tween 80®).

After combining the hydrophilic surfactant and the water, the solutionis processed until the hydrophilic surfactant disperses. The hydrophilicsurfactant may be dispersed by any mixing means know in the art.Examples of suitable mixing means are described infra. In oneembodiment, the hydrophilic surfactant is dispersed by stirring. Inanother embodiment, the hydrophilic surfactant is dispersed by stirringat a speed of between about 5,000 rpm and about 10,000 rpm. Oncedispersed this solution forms the aqueous phase.

A “first phase” is formed by dispersing a lipophilic surfactant in theaqueous phase. The lipophilic surfactant may be selected from but notlimited to the group comprising of fatty acids; sorbitan fatty acidesters; acetylated glycerol fatty acid esters; lower alcohol fatty acidsesters; trans-esterification products of fatty acids, glycerides,vegetable oils, hydrogenated vegetable oils, triglycerides andpolyalkylene polyols; sterols and sterol derivatives; pentaerythritolfatty acid esters and polyalkylene glycol ethers; monoglycerides andacetylated, e.g. mono- and di-acetylated monoglycerides; lecithins andhydrogenated lecithins; lysolecithin and hydrogenated lysolecithins;lysophospholipids and derivatives thereof; phospholipids and derivativesthereof; or mixtures thereof. Preferably, the lipophilic surfactant is aphospholipid. Phospholipids are amphiphilic molecules and may act assurfactants. Phospholipids suitable for use include phosphatidic acid(phosphatidate), phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin),phosphatidylcholine (lecithin), phosphatidylserine, andphosphoinositides. A mixture of various phospholipids may also be used.In one embodiment, the phospholipid is lecithin. In another embodiment,the phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine enriched lecithin (Epikuron™).The phospholipid may be dispersed by a mixer, as described infra. In oneembodiment, the phospholipid is dispersed by the use of a stirrer at aspeed of between about 10,000 rpm and about 20,000 rpm.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory or hypothesis, theinventors believe that the addition of a lipophilic surfactant to theaqueous phase creates a robust multilayered/sperical micellar structureor liposomal structure due to presence of the hydrophilic surfactant.This multilayer micellar structure is thought to increase the surfacearea of the interface, which facilitates access to the surfactant duringthe emulsification process.

Accordingly, in some aspects, the steps of the method are carried out ina particular order in order to promote the formation ofmultilayered/spherical micelle structures. In accordance with theseaspects, step (a), (b) and (c) are carried out before step (d).Therefore, a first phase is formed comprising a hydrophilic surfactant,water and lipophilic surfactant and a second phase is formed comprisinglipid, before the first and second phases are combined in step (d).Further, in one embodiment, the miniemulsion comprisesmultilayered/spherical emulsified particles.

Miniemulsions of the prior art generally contain high surfactantconcentrations (greater than 10%) in order to maintain stability. Forexample, WO2010/093523 describes a microemulsion comprising aco-surfactant from about 10% to about 20% by weight and a surfactant,from about 15% to about 40% by weight. Similarly, WO2010/092596describes a microemulsion having a range of concentration ofsurfactant/co-surfactant from 15 to 96% (v/v). Although the amount ofsurfactant in the first phase and in the resultant miniemulsiondescribed herein will, of course, vary depending on the type ofsurfactants used and other factors, such as the intended use, theminiemulsion comprises generally a low concentration of surfactant. Theminiemulsion can comprise 2% w/w, 4% w/w, 5% w/w, 6% w/w, 8% w/w, or 10%w/w surfactant, including any range between the disclosed percentages.In one embodiment, the miniemulsion comprises less than 10% w/wsurfactant. In another embodiment, the miniemulsion comprises betweenabout 1% w/w and about 5% w/w lipophilic surfactant and between about0.5% w/w and about 5% w/w hydrophilic surfactant.

Critical micelle concentration (CMC) is defined as the concentration ofsurfactants above which micelles are spontaneously formed. Uponintroduction of surfactants (or any surface active materials) into thesystem they will initially partition into the interface, reducing thesystem free energy by a) by lowering the energy of the interface and b)by removing the hydrophobic parts of the surfactant from contacts withwater.

Subsequently, when the surface coverage by the surfactants increases andthe surface free energy (surface tension) decreases and the surfactantsstart aggregating into micelles, thus again decreasing the system's freeenergy by decreasing the contact area of hydrophobic parts of thesurfactant with water. Upon reaching CMC, any further addition ofsurfactants will just increase the number of micelles (in the idealcase).

These micellar or liposomal structures make the lipophilic surfactantreadily available at interface to the lipid when the second phase isadded, promoting formation of emulsified particles. Provided below is atable of commonly used non-ionic surfactants and their CMC value:

No. SurfactantTrade name CMC (mM) 1 Tween 20 0.05 2 Tween 40 0.023 3Tween 60 0.021 4 Tween 80 0.01 5 Tween 65 0.00018 6 Tween 85 0.00029 7Myrj 45 0.373 Triton X (TX) series 8 TX-15 0.0145 9 TX-35 0.047 10 TX-450.1 11 TX-114 0.168 12 TX-100 0.24 13 TX-102 0.35 14 TX-165 0.439 15TX-305 0.72 16 TX-405 0.81 17 TX-705 1.0413 Brij Series 18 Brij 30 0.00419 Brij 35 0.06 20 Brij 52 0.000067 21 Brij 56 0.002 22 Brij 58 0.007 23Brij 72 0.00025 24 Brij 76 0.003 25 Brij 78 0.0057 26 Brij 92 24.845 27Brij 97 0.94 28 Brij 99 0.265 29 Brij 700 0.02 30 Brij 721 0.0039 31Phospholipid D7PC 1.9

While not wishing to be bound by any hypothesis, generally theconcentration of surfactant is higher than the CMC in the final system.However, a person skilled in the art would appreciate that a specificrange cannot be delineated due to complex behaviour of surfactant in thesystem and because CMC values change with according to the presence ofsolvent and differences in temperature.

The method described herein also involves preparing a “second phase”comprising a lipid. The lipid may be any lipid known in the artincluding vegetable derived lipids, animal derived lipids, and mineraloils. Preferably the lipid is a vegetable oil comprising medium orlong-chain fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6 carbons or longer.Examples of vegetable oils suitable for use in the present methodinclude coconut oil, castor oil, arachis oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil,olive oil, palm oil, rapeseed oil, including Canola oil, safflower oil,soybean oil, and sunflower oil and their derivatives. In one embodiment,the oil is soybean oil. In another embodiment, the lipid is an animalderived lipid such as phosphatidylcholine.

The miniemulsion can comprise 0.5% w/w, 2% w/w, 5% w/w, 10% w/w, 15%w/w, 20% w/w, 25% w/w, 30% w/w or 40% w/w lipid, including any rangebetween the disclosed percentages. In one embodiment, the miniemulsioncomprises at least about 0.5% w/w, or for example, from about 0.5% w/wto about 40% w/w, from about 0.5% w/w to about 15% w/w, or from about15% w/w to about 25% w/w oil, or from about 25% w/w to about 40% w/woil.

Optionally, dispersion of the lipid may be aided by the addition of asolvent to either the first or second phase. Suitable solvents would bewell known to a person skilled in the art. Examples of suitable solventsinclude acetone (2-propanone, propan-2-one), 1-butanol (n-butylalcohol), 2-butanol (butan-2-ol), ethanol (ethyl alcohol), ethyl acetate(acetic acid ethyl ester), heptane (n-heptane), 3-methyl-1-butanol(isoamyl alcohol, isopentyl alcohol), methylethylketone (2-butanone,MEK, butane-2-one), 2-methyl-1-propanol (isobutyl alcohol,2-methylpropan-1-ol), pentane (n-pentane), 1-Pentanol (amyl alcohol,pentan-1-01), 1-propanol (propan-1-ol, propyl alcohol), 2-propanol(propan-2-ol, isopropyl alcohol, IPA). Preferably the solvent is a watermiscible (hydrophilic) solvent, for example, propanol, isopropylalcohol, ethanol, or acetone. In one embodiment, the first or secondphase further comprises between about 5 g and about 20 g of propanol.

Once the first and second phases have been prepared, the second phase isadded to the first phase in a manner adapted to form an oil-in-waterminiemulsion. Suitable manners that are adapted to form miniemulsionswould be well known to a person skilled in the art. Preferably, themanner adapted to form a miniemulsion and other processes used to formthe miniemulsion described herein are low-energy. Generally, high-energyprocesses are required to produce particles having a mean size of 1 μmor less. For example, generally a doubling of energy dissipation (energyconsumption) may cause a reduction of average particle size of about 25%when using conventional formulations.

Energy consumption may take place in various forms, for example, it canbe the energy needed by the stirrer to overcome shear force resistanceof the miniemulsion in a batch process, the energy for heating andcooling, and/or the power to overcome pressure drop. For example,WO2008/128779 describes forming a microemulsion by mixing an oily phasewith an aqueous phase using high energy shear processes such as highpressure homogenisation or sonication. Heating is often needed foremulsification when one of the phases does not flow or flows too slowlyat room temperature. WO2006/024095 describes a step of heating in therange of 40-99° C., preferably 45-95° C., more preferably 65-85° C. withcontinuous mixing to obtain an oil in water microemulsion. A heatedemulsion typically has lower stability due to lower viscosity of thecontinuous phase and in turn less drag. Drag may be necessary to stop orresist the motion of the droplets and in turn the coalescence intolarger and often undesired droplets or aggregates of droplets as well asphase separation into layers. After emulsification, droplets tend torise by buoyancy. As such, an immediate cooling down step may be needed,which also consumes energy.

In contrast, the method described herein does not require significantheating (and as such does not require cooling) or pressure to form astable miniemulsion. Therefore, the miniemulsion disclosed can be formedin the absence of high temperatures. Generally, formation of theminiemulsion described herein is conducted at a temperature of less thanabout 80° C., preferably less than about 60° C. and more preferably at atemperature of 40° C. or less. Further, as the method disclosed hereindoes not utilise high temperature, there is no cooling step required.While ancillary steps, such as the sterilisation of materials, mayinvolve high temperatures, a person skilled in the art would appreciatethat such steps in no way facilitate the formation of the miniemulsion.

The miniemulsion disclosed herein can also be formed in the absence ofhigh pressures. Typically, the formation of the miniemulsion describedherein is conducted in a chamber having a pressure of less than about1,000 kPa, preferably about less than about 500 kPa and more preferablyat normal atmospheric pressure (about 101 kPa). In one embodiment, theaddition of the second phase to the first phase is conducted at atemperature of 40° C. or less and at normal atmospheric pressure (about101 kPa).

Accordingly, the manners adapted to form a miniemulsion used in thepresent method are considerably lower in energy consumption than thoseused to form conventional miniemulsions. For example, in one aspect, theminiemulsion can be formed by stirring using a magnetic stirrer,overhead stirrer or other suitable stirring means. In another aspect,the formation of the miniemulsion can be aided by a mixer. In oneaspect, for example, the second phase is added in a drop wise fashion toa continuous mixer containing the first phase. The continuous mixer cancomprise any suitable mixing means, including a static and/or dynamicmixer. The mixer can be any mixer comprising mechanical ornon-mechanical mixing parts.

The continuous mixer may comprise a stirrer having static mixing armsthat create turbulence in the flow such that the first and second phasesare mixed to thereby form the miniemulsion. In other aspects, thecontinuous mixer comprises an emulsifier, an emulsification device, or ahomogeniser (e.g., an in-line or continuous homogeniser or arotor/stator homogeniser). Examples include, without limitation,packed-bed emulsifiers, screen, and membrane emulsifiers. In one aspect,the continuous mixer is stirrer that has mixing parts that can mix thephases at a desired revolutions per minute (rpm), such as from about5,000 rpm to about 20,000 rpm. In one embodiment, the second phase isadded to the first phase as a continuous flow or continuous streamduring continuous mixing. In another embodiment, the second phase isadded to the first phase under controlled flow during continuous mixing.In a further embodiment, the continuous mixing is with a rotorhomogeniser at a speed up to about 20,000 rpm.

In general, any emulsified particles can be produced by the methodsdisclosed herein. The emulsified particles can have a wide variety ofshapes and structures, including spherical, multilayered, microcapsule,microsphere, nanoparticle, nanocapsule and nanosphere, having sizes fromabout 10 nm to 1 μm and as well as particles, in general, that are lessthan about 1 μm. The miniemulsion can comprise particles having a meansize between about 10 nm to about 900 nm, about 20 nm to about 800 nm,and about 50 nm to about 850 nm, including any range between thedisclosed ranges. However, generally, miniemulsions produced by themethods disclosed herein have a mean particle size of between 250 nm and1 μm. In one aspect, the disclosed emulsified particles have a meanparticle size of less than 1 μm. In one embodiment, the range of meanparticle size is from about 250 nm to about 1 μm. In yet anotherembodiment, the range of mean particle size is from about 300 nm toabout 700 nm. In still another embodiment, the mean particle size isabout 600 nm. In a further embodiment, at least 70% and most preferablyat least 75% of the particles in the miniemulsion are 1 μm or less.

Particle size distributions are measured by laser diffraction techniquesknown to those of skill in the art. Optionally, the miniemulsion mayundergo sonication and/or high pressure homogenisation and/or increasethe mixing time to further reduce the particle size, if required.

The miniemulsion formed by the method described above is stable withoutrefrigeration for extended periods of time. When an emulsion becomesunstable it separates or coalesces into its component phases and a layerof lipid or oil becomes visible. An increase in particle size alsoindicates that the emulsion is becoming unstable. As discussed above,methods of determining particle size are known to those skilled in theart. Therefore, the miniemulsion described herein is stable in thatafter an extended period of time the miniemulsion still has a meanparticle size of 1 μm or less. In one embodiment, the miniemulsiondescribed herein is stable from at least one month up to about threeyears without refrigeration. Preferably, the miniemulsion is stablewithout refrigeration for at least about one year. More preferably, theminiemulsion is stable without refrigeration for at least about twoyears. In one embodiment, after about three years at least 70% of theparticles are 1 μm or less. In another embodiment, after about threeyears the mean particle size has increased by less than 0.05 μm.

In one aspect, a miniemulsion provided by a method described above maybe formulated to include a bioactive agent or multiple bioactive agentsin combination. A wide variety of bioactive agents can be used with themethods described herein. A liquid or solid bioactive agent can beincorporated into the miniemulsion described herein. The bioactiveagents can include salts of the active ingredient. As such, thebioactive agents can be acidic, basic, or amphoteric salts. They can benon-ionic molecules, polar molecules, prodrugs, solvates, polymorphs ormolecular complexes capable of hydrogen bonding. The bioactive agent canbe included in the compositions in the form of, for example, anuncharged molecule, a molecular complex, a salt, an ether, an ester, anamide, polymer drug conjugate, or other form to provide the effectivebiological or physiological activity.

Examples of bioactive agents that may be incorporated into systemsherein include, but are not limited to, peptides, proteins such ashormones, enzymes, antibodies, antibody fragments and the like, nucleicacids such as aptamers, siRNA, DNA, RNA, antisense nucleic acid or thelike, antisense nucleic acid analogs or the like, low-molecular weightcompounds, or high-molecular weight compounds. Bioactive agentscontemplated for use in the disclosed miniemulsion include anabolicagents, antacids, anti-asthmatic agents, anti-cholesterolemic andanti-lipid agents, anti-coagulants, anti-convulsants, anti-diarrheals,anti-emetics, anti-infective agents including antibacterial andantimicrobial agents, anti-inflammatory agents, anti-manic agents,antimetabolite agents, anti-nauseants, anti-neoplastic agents,anti-obesity agents, anti-pyretic and analgesic agents, anti-spasmodicagents, anti-thrombotic agents, antitussive agents, anti-uricemicagents, anti-vascular growth agents, anti-vascular endothelial growthagents, anti-anginal agents, antihistamines, appetite suppressants,biologicals, cerebral dilators, coronary dilators, bronchiodilators,cytotoxic agents, decongestants, diuretics, diagnostic agents,erythropoietic agents, expectorants, gastrointestinal sedatives,hyperglycemic agents, hypnotics, hypoglycemic agents, immunomodulatingagents, ion exchange resins, laxatives, mineral supplements, mucolyticagents, neuromuscular drugs, peripheral vasodilators, psychotropics,sedatives, stimulants, thyroid and anti-thyroid agents, tissue growthagents, vascular growth agents, vascular endothelial growth agents,uterine relaxants, vitamins, or antigenic materials.

Other bioactive agents include androgen inhibitors, polysaccharides,growth factors, hormones, anti-angiogenesis factors, dextromethorphan,dextromethorphan hydrobromide, noscapine, carbetapentane citrate,chlophedianol hydrochloride, chlorpheniramine maleate, phenindaminetartrate, pyrilamine maleate, doxylamine succinate, phenyltoloxaminecitrate, phenylephrine hydrochloride, phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride,pseudoephedrine hydrochloride, ephedrine, codeine phosphate, codeinesulfate morphine, mineral supplements, cholestryramine,N-acetylprocainamide, acetaminophen, aspirin, ibuprofen, phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride, caffeine, guaifenesin, aluminum hydroxide,magnesium hydroxide, peptides, polypeptides, proteins, amino acids,hormones, interferons, cytokines, and vaccines.

Representative drugs that can be used as bioactive agents in theminiemulsion include, but are not limited to, peptide drugs, proteindrugs, desensitizing materials, antigens, anti-infective agents such asantibiotics, antimicrobial agents, antiviral, antibacterial,antiparasitic, antifungal substances and combination thereof,antiallergenics, androgenic steroids, decongestants, hypnotics,steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, anticholinergics, sympathomimetics,sedatives, miotics, psychic energizers, tranquilizers, vaccines,estrogens, progestational agents, humoral agents, prostaglandins,analgesics, antispasmodics, antimalarials, antihistamines, cardioactiveagents, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, antiparkinsonian agents,antihypertensive agents, beta-adrenergic blocking agents,alpha-adrenergic antagonists, nutritional agents, opium alkaloids andthe benzophenanthridine alkaloids. The agent can further be a substancecapable of acting as a stimulant, sedative, hypnotic, analgesic,anticonvulsant, and the like.

Other bioactive agents include but are not limited to the bioactiveagent comprises an antibiotic. The antibiotic can be, for example, oneor more of Amikacin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin, Neomycin, Netilmicin,Streptomycin, Tobramycin, Paromomycin, Ansamycins, Geldanamycin,Herbimycin, Carbacephem, Loracarbef, Carbapenems, Ertapenem, Doripenem,Imipenem/Cilastatin, Meropenem, Cephalosporins (First generation),Cefadroxil, Cefazolin, Cefalotin or Cefalothin, Cefalexin,Cephalosporins (Second generation), Cefaclor, Cefamandole, Cefoxitin,Cefprozil, Cefuroxime, Cephalosporins (Third generation), Cefixime,Cefdinir, Cefditoren, Cefoperazone, Cefotaxime, Cefpodoxime,Ceftazidime, Ceftibuten, Ceftizoxime, Ceftriaxone, Cephalosporins(Fourth generation), Cefepime, Cephalosporins (Fifth generation),Ceftobiprole, Glycopeptides, Teicoplanin, Vancomycin, Macrolides,Azithromycin, Clarithromycin, Dirithromycin, Erythromycin,Roxithromycin, Troleandomycin, Telithromycin, Spectinomycin,Monobactams, Aztreonam, Penicillins, Amoxicillin, Ampicillin,Azlocillin, Carbenicillin, Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin, Flucloxacillin,Mezlocillin, Meticillin, Nafcillin, Oxacillin, Penicillin, Piperacillin,Ticarcillin, Polypeptides, Bacitracin, Colistin, Polymyxin B,Quinolones, Ciprofloxacin, Enoxacin. Gatifloxacin, Levofloxacin,Lomefloxacin, Moxifloxacin, Norfloxacin, Ofloxacin, Trovafloxacin,Sulfonamides, Mafenide, Prontosil (archaic), Sulfacetamide,Sulfamethizole, Sulfanilimide (archaic), Sulfasalazine, Sulfisoxazole,Trimethoprim, Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX),Tetracyclines, including Demeclocycline, Doxycycline, Minocycline,Oxytetracycline, Tetracycline, and others; Arsphenamine,Chloramphenicol, Clindamycin, Lincomycin, Ethambutol, Fosfomycin,Fusidic acid, Furazolidone, Isoniazid, Linezolid, Metronidazole,Mupirocin, Nitrofurantoin, Platensimycin, Pyrazinamide,Quinupristin/Dalfopristin, Rifampicin (Rifampin in U.S.), Tinidazole, ora combination thereof.

The bioactive agent can also be an immunomodulator, including, forexample, cytokines, interleukins, interferon, colony stimulating factor,tumour necrosis factor, and the like; allergens such as cat dander,birch pollen, house dust mite, grass pollen, and the like; antigens ofbacterial organisms such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilusinfluenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyrogenes,Corynebacterium diphteriae, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus anthracis,Clostridium tetani, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens,Neisseria meningitides, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Streptococcus mutans,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Haemophilus parainfluenzae,Bordetella pertussis, Francisella tularensis, Yersinia pestis, Vibriocholerae, Legionella pneumophila, Mycobacterium tuberculosis,Mycobacterium leprae, Treponema pallidum, Leptspirosis interrogans,Borrelia burgddorferi, Campylobacter jejuni, and the like; antigens ofsuch viruses as smallpox, influenza A and B, respiratory synctial,parainfluenza, measles, HIV, SARS, varicella-zoster, herpes simplex 1and 2, cytomeglavirus, Epstein-Barr, rotavirus, rhinovirus, adenovirus,papillomavirus, poliovirus, mumps, rabies, rubella, coxsackieviruses,equine encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, yellow fever, Rift Valleyfever, lymphocytic choriomeningitis, hepatitis B, and the like; antigensof such fungal, protozoan, and parasitic organisms such as Cryptococcucneoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Candida albicans, Candidatropicalis, Nocardia asteroids, Rickettsia ricketsii, Rickettsia typhi,Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamyda psittaci, Chlamydia trachomatis,Plasmodium falciparum, Trypanasoma brucei, Entamoeba histolytica,Toxoplasma gondii, Trichomonas vaginalis, Schistosoma mansoni, and thelike. These antigens may be in the form of whole killed organisms,peptides, proteins, glycoproteins, carbohydrates, or combinationsthereof.

In a further specific aspect, analgesics such as acetaminophen,acetylsalicylic acid, and the like; anesthetics such as lidocaine,lignocaine, xylocaine, and the like; anorexics such as dexadrine,phendimetrazine tartrate, and the like; antiarthritics such asmethylprednisolone, ibuprofen, and the like; antiasthmatics such asterbutaline sulfate, theophylline, ephedrine, and the like; antibioticssuch as sulfisoxazole, penicillin G, ampicillin, cephalosporins,amikacin, gentamicin, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, erythromycin,clindamycin, isoniazid, rifampin, and the like; antifungals such asamphotericin B, nystatin, ketoconazole, and the like; antimicrobialssuch as cetrimide, and the like; antivirals such as acyclovir,amantadine, and the like; anticancer agents such as cyclophosphamide,methotrexate, etretinate, and the like; anticoagulants such as heparin,warfarin, and the like; anticonvulsants such as phenytoin sodium,diazepam, and the like; antidepressants such as isocarboxazid,amoxapine, and the like; antihistamines such as diphenhydramine HCl,chlorpheniramine maleate, and the like; hormones such as insulin,progestins, estrogens, corticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, and thelike; tranquilizers such as thorazine, diazepam, chlorpromazine HCl,reserpine, chlordiazepoxide HCl, and the like; antispasmodics such asbelladonna alkaloids, dicyclomine hydrochloride, papaverine, and thelike; vitamins and minerals such as essential amino acids, calcium,iron, potassium, zinc, vitamin B 12, vitamin C, vitamin D and the like;cardiovascular agents such as prazosin HCl, nitroglycerin, propranololHCl, hydralazine HCl, pancrelipase, succinic acid dehydrogenase, and thelike; peptides and proteins such as LHRH, somatostatin, calcitonin,growth hormone, glucagon-like peptides, growth releasing factor,angiotensin, FSH, EGF, bone morphogenic protein (BMP), erythopoeitin(EPO), interferon, interleukin, collagen, fibrinogen, insulin, FactorVIII, Factor IX, Enbrel®, Rituxam®, Herceptin, alpha-glucosidase,Cerazyme/Ceredose®, vasopressin, ACTH, human serum albumin, gammaglobulin, structural proteins, blood product proteins, complex proteins,enzymes, antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, antibody fragments, and thelike; prostaglandins such as prostaglandin E1, prostaglandin 12,prostaglandin E2, and the like; nucleic acids; carbohydrates; fats;narcotics such as morphine, codeine, and the like; psychotherapeutics;nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents such as ibuprofen, diclofenac andthe like; antihypertensive agents such as phentolamine HCl, and thelike; anti-malarials, L-dopa, diuretics such as furosemide,spironolactone, and the like; antiulcer drugs such as rantidine HCl,cimetidine HCl, and the like.

In certain aspects, the bioactive agent can be present as a component ina pharmaceutical composition. Pharmaceutical compositions can beconveniently prepared in a desired dosage form, including, for example,a unit dosage form or controlled release dosage form, and prepared byany of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. In general,pharmaceutical compositions are prepared by uniformly and intimatelybringing the bioactive agent into association with a liquid carrier or afinely divided solid carrier, or both. The pharmaceutical carrieremployed can be, for example, a solid, liquid, or gas. Examples of solidcarriers include lactose, terra alba, sucrose, talc, gelatin, agar,pectin, acacia, magnesium stearate, and stearic acid. Examples of liquidcarriers are sugar syrup, peanut oil, olive oil, and water. Examples ofgaseous carriers include carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Otherpharmaceutically acceptable carriers or components that can be mixedwith the bioactive agent can include, for example, a fatty acid, asugar, a salt, a water-soluble polymer such as polyethylene glycol, aprotein, polysacharride, or carboxmethyl cellulose, a surfactant, aplasticizer, a high- or low-molecular weight porosigen such as polymeror a salt or sugar, or a hydrophobic low-molecular weight compound suchas cholesterol or a wax.

The method of incorporating the bioactive agent into the miniemulsionwill be dependent on the properties of the bioactive agent. For example,a lipophillic agent will generally be dissolved in the lipid and bedispersed with the lipid in the lipid droplet, while a hydrophilic agentwill generally be dissolved in the aqueous phase. However, hydrophilicand lipophilic agents may also be chemically or physically bound topolymers, lipids and/or surfactants. Methods of incorporating thebioactive agent into the miniemulsion would be well known to personsskilled in the art (see, for example, Hendrickson, R. Ed. Remington: TheScience and Practice of Pharmacy, 21st ed.; Lippincott Williams &Wilkins: Baltimore Md., 2005).

In one embodiment, the second phase comprises lipid and a bioactiveagent. It will be apparent that the presently disclosed methods provide,in one aspect, a high concentration of bioactive active agent, relativeto the size of the emulsified particle. As described supra, theminiemulsion described here can contain up to 40% w/w oil. This high oilcontent allows a high concentration of bioactive agent to beincorporated into the miniemulsion. For example, the miniemulsion cancomprise 0.1% w/w, 0.5% w/w, 2% w/w, 3% w/w, 5% w/w, 10% w/w, 15% w/w,30% w/w or 40% w/w bioactive agent, including any range between thedisclosed percentages. In one embodiment, the miniemulsion comprises atleast about 0.2% w/w, or for example, from about 0.2% w/w to about 8%w/w, or from about 10% w/w to about 15% w/w bioactive agent.

In a particular aspect, the preferred bioactive agent is a “hydrophobiccompound” or “lipophilic compound”. The term “hydrophobic compound”refers to a compound with limited water solubility. The term “lipophiliccompound” refers to a compound that is characterized by its favourableinteraction with lipids. Examples of such compounds include organicmolecules which lack groups that may support a formal charge (e.g.,carboxylic acid and amino groups) or which lack polar groups such ashydroxyl groups. Such compounds may be amino acid-based (e.g., aminoacids, peptides, polypeptide and proteins), wherein the amino acids areexclusively or predominantly hydrophobic (e.g., leucine, valine, etc.).Examples of hydrophobic bioactive agents useful for various medicalapplications include propanidid, propofol, alphadione, lidocaine,lignocaine, echinomycin, miconazole nitrate, taxanes (also known astaxines or taxoids) such as paclitaxel and docetaxel, podophyllotoxins,camptothecins such as camptothecin, 9-aminocamptothecin,9-nitrocamptothecin, camptothecin-11 (“Irinotecan”), topotecan, vincaalkaloids and their analogs (vincristine, vinorelbine, vindesine,vintripol, vinxaltine, ancitabine), lipophilic anthracyclines,decarbazine, lonidamine, piroxantrone, anthrapyrazoles, etoposide,bleomycin, 6-aminochrysene, navelbine, tributyrin, teniposide,platinum-based agents, praziquantel, cyclosporin A,18-hydroxydeoxycorticosterone, rapamycin, prednisolone, vitamin A,vitamin E, purpurin, tin etiopurpurin, porphyrins, paraaminobenzoicacid, diazepam, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, BBB-MDP, verapamil andnifedipine. In one embodiment, the bioactive agent is lidocaine orlignocaine.

In another embodiment, the first phase comprises a bioactive agent. Inthis case the preferred bioactive agent is a “hydrophilic compound” or“lipophobic compound”. The term “hydrophilic compound” refers to acompound that is soluble in water. Examples of hydrophilic bioactiveagents useful for various medical applications would be well known tothose skilled in the art, for example, lignocaine HCl.

Accordingly, in one aspect, the method and miniemulsion described abovemay form a delivery system for a bioactive agent. Due to the size of theemulsified particles being 1 μm or smaller, the delivery systemdescribed herein can be administered by topical, enteral or parenteralroutes. For example, the delivery system can be administered orally,nasally, intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, sublingually,intrathecally, intraperitoneally, intratumorally, topically,transdermally or intradermally. The route of administration can dependon a variety of factors, such as the environment and therapeutic goals.Further non-limiting pharmaceutically suitable materials that may beincorporated in pharmaceutical preparations/compositions disclosedherein include absorption enhancers, pH-adjusting agents and buffers,osmolarity adjusters, preservatives, stabilizers, antioxidants,surfactants, thickening agents, co-solvents, emollients, dispersingagents, flavouring agents, colouring agents and wetting agents andligands/pilote/targeting molecules. The delivery system may be in theform of a liquid, a powder, an aerosol, a capsule, a tablet, asuppository, a cream, a gel and an ointment. Exemplary types of liquidinclude a lotion and a spray. In particular embodiments, the deliverysystem is formulated for administration as a spray or as an aerosol.Methods for preparing appropriate formulations are well known in the art(see, for example, Hendrickson, R. Ed. Remington: The Science andPractice of Pharmacy, 21st ed.; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: BaltimoreMd., 2005).

In one particular example, the miniemulsion may be formulated into acomposition capable of reducing pain sensation or nociception, whetherthe pain incurred is a result of disease, inflammation, trauma orpsychosomatic reaction. The composition will therefore be administeredas an effective amount to a subject in need of pain relief. The phrase“in need of pain relief” as applied to a subject herein embraces asubject suffering mild to intense pain at the time of administration ofthe composition, as well as a subject that can reasonably be expected tohave an imminent onset of mild to intense pain, eg., within about 1 toabout 2 hours and especially within about 30 minutes, if no pain reliefis administered.

The term “effective amount” refers to that amount which is sufficient toinduce or maintain pain relief when administered to a subject; i.e., apain relieving amount. What constitutes an effective pain-relievingamount, or dose, of the composition depends, among other factors, on thebody weight of the subject and the intensity of the pain being treated.

An “effective pain relieving concentration” or “effective pain relievingplasma concentration” as used herein is intended to mean a plasma levelin a subject which when tested in a standardised test involving thesubject scoring the severity of pain, achieves a mean score indicatingpain relief. In one such test as described herein below, patients scorepain on a scale of from 10 (no reduction in severity of pain) to 0(complete relief of pain) and a mean score equal to or greater than agiven value is deemed to constitute effective pain-relief. A mean scoreof 5.0 or less and, more preferably, 2.0 or less in such a test, asexemplified herein, is deemed to constitute effective pain relief. Theskilled artisan will appreciate, however, that other approaches can beused to assess the severity of pain and relief from such pain.

Thus, one aspect of the miniemulsion method described herein involves atherapeutic method for pain relief in which a miniemulsion comprisinglidocaine is administered to a subject, in a formulation which providesdetectable pain relief. By “detectable pain relief”, it is meant thatthe formulation produces effective pain relief which is measurable by astandard method such as that described above. For example, aformulation, which achieves a mean score of 5.0 or less and, morepreferably, 2.0 or less on a scale of from 0 to 10 in a testing systemas described above, is deemed to provide detectable pain relief. Thedisclosure is not limited to use of any particular type of formulation,so long as it exhibits the pharmacokinetic profile defined herein. Inone embodiment, the miniemulsion is formulated into an aerosol spraycomprising lidocaine or lignocaine for use in pain relief.

The miniemulsion or delivery system described herein can be administeredto any desired subject. The subject can be a vertebrate, such as amammal, a fish, a bird, a reptile, or an amphibian. The subject of theherein disclosed methods can be, for example, a human, non-humanprimate, horse, pig, rabbit, dog, sheep, goat, cow, cat, guinea pig orrodent. The term does not denote a particular age or sex. Thus, adultand newborn subjects, as well as foetuses, whether male or female, areintended to be covered.

The disclosure will now be further described by way of reference only tothe following non-limiting examples. It should be understood, however,that the examples following are illustrative only, and should not betaken in any way as a restriction on the generality of the disclosuredescribed above.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Miniemulsion Preparation

Miniemulsions of 100 g were prepared with various concentrations ofsurfactant using the following process:

Lecithin 1.00-3.00% w/w Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 1.50-4.50% w/w Soybeanoil    14.50% w/w Water for Injection (WFI) up to weight

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Polysorbate 80 was added to 80% of the WFI required for        preparation of the miniemulsion and stirred until dispersed.    -   2. Lecithin was then added into the aqueous solution of Tween 80        and dispersed by homogenization using a rotor homogeniser for 2        minutes or until dispersed.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. Soybean oil.

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        and with continuous homogenisation using a rotor homogeniser at        a speed of 10,000 rpm. The remaining WFI was added to make up to        weight. The resultant mixture was homogenised using a rotor        homogeniser at a speed of 18,000 rpm for 10 minutes.

Example 2 Stability of Miniemulsions with Different Concentrations ofSurfactant

The miniemulsions prepared in Example 1 were scored on stability afterone month using a number of parameters as shown in Table 1. As can beseen from Table 1, the total concentration of surfactant had nosignificant impact on the overall stability of the miniemulsion.

TABLE 1 Parameters Form. 1 Form. 2 Form. 3 Form. 4 Form. 5 Form. 6 Form.7 Form. 8 Form. 9 Lecithin 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 1.00Tween 80 4.50 3.00 1.50 4.50 3.00 1.50 4.50 3.00 1.50 % Ratio of 15.0017.11 20.00 22.00 17.00 19.00 16.00 18.00 20.20 Creamy layer/totalheight Cracking No No No No No No Visible Visible No Relative 1.04 1.051.04 1.05 1.05 1.04 1.05 1.04 1.05 density Viscosity 2.51 2.28 2.01 2.852.48 2.27 2.19 1.98 1.85 (mPa) Mean particle size (μm) Upper 0.72 0.640.66 0.90 0.69 0.68 0.66 0.79 0.64 layer Lower 0.53 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.550.47 0.50 0.53 0.56 layer Total 0.66 0.73 0.72 0.65 0.68 0.70 0.73 0.680.73 emulsion

Example 3 Miniemulsion Prepared with and without Sonication

A 1 kg batch of miniemulsion was prepared according to Example 1according to the following formulation except that the addition ofPreparation B to Preparation A was aided by a peristaltic pump and notadded dropwise:

Lecithin 1.00% w/w Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 1.00% w/w Soybean oil14.50% w/w  Water for Injection (WFI) up to weight

The resultant miniemulsion was then subjected to magnetic stirring,homogenisation for 2, 4 or 10 minutes and sonication for 5 minutes, withsamples taken at each stage for particle size analysis. Briefly, theemulsion was stirred using a magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes before afirst sample was taken. The emulsion was then homogenised using a rotorhomogeniser for 10 minutes, with samples taken at 2, 4 and 10 minutes.The emulsion was then further processed with sonication for 5 minutesand a final sample taken.

Particle size was analysed by Mastersizer 2000 from Malvern and themedian diameter, where 50% of the distribution is above and 50% is belowa diameter (d(0.5)), was determined. As shown in Table 2, a d(0.5) of0.680 μm was achieved by stirring with a magnetic stirrer only. Further,there was no significant decrease in d(0.5) with homogenisation and/orsonication indicating that the present method can produce a miniemulsionusing low-energy methods.

TABLE 2 Batch d (0.5) 2% w/w emulsifier - stirred 0.680 μm 2% w/wemulsifier - homogenised 2 min 0.623 μm 2% w/w emulsifier - homogenised4 min 0.659 μm 2% w/w emulsifier - homogenised 10 min 0.715 μm 2% w/wemulsifier - 5 min sonication 0.651 μm

Example 4 Formation and Evaluation of Multilayered Micelle Structures

It was hypothesised that the addition of the lipophilic surfactant tothe dispersed hydrophilic surfactant created a multilayered micellestructure. A miniemulsion of 100 g was prepared containing fluorescencedyes as follows:

Lecithin  2.00% w/w Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80)  4.50% w/w Soybean oil14.50% w/w Rhodamine 0.010% w/w Fluorescein sodium 0.010% w/w Water forInjection (WFI) up to weight

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Fluorescein sodium (water soluble) was dissolved in 50 g of        water.    -   2. Tween 80 was added into the 50 g of water containing        fluorescein sodium on magnetic stirrer until dispersed.    -   3. Lecithin was added to the aqueous solution of Tween 80 and        dispersed by homogenisation using a rotor homogeniser for 10        minutes or until dispersed.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. Rhodamine was dissolved in the soybean oil by sonication for        20 minutes in warm water (40° C.).    -   2. The oil was then filtered through a 0.2 μm filter to remove        any undissolved Rhodamine particles.

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        with continuous stirring by a magnetic stirrer at medium speed        (5). A sample was collected at this stage and imaged using        fluorescence microscopy (FIG. 1).    -   The remaining water was added to make up to weight. The final        mixture was stirred with magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes        (maximum speed of 10). The homogenisation process was excluded        and the preparation stirred at medium speed instead to achieve a        larger particle size, which can be more easily observed by        fluorescence microscope at 400× magnification.

A sample of the resultant preparation was then imaged using fluorescencemicroscopy (FIG. 2). As can be seen in FIGS. 1 and 2, the preparationcomprises multilayered/spherical structures of lecithin and Tween 80containing lipid within. A similar process was used to prepare a samplefor light microscopy, except the fluorescein sodium was omitted from theaqueous phase (FIG. 3). It is thought that this multilayered structureincreases the surface area of the interface and makes surfactant easilyavailable at the interface during the emulsification process.

Further, the particles are spherical, which means that the particles arecompletely covered by surfactant molecules and there is minimum surfaceavailable for particle interaction compared with other forms ofparticles.

Lastly, this example demonstrates the ability for the miniemulsion toincorporate hydrophilic agents (fluorescin sodium) and lipophilic agents(rhodamine).

Example 5 Alternative Miniemulsion Preparations

The following variations on the formulations mentioned above were alsoprepared and are stable from 3 to 6 months.

Lecithin 2.00 g Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 2.50 g Soybean oil 25.00 gIsopropyl alcohol 10 ml Water for Injection (WFI) up to 100 g

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Tween 80 was dissolved in 80% of the WFI by stirring.    -   2. 1.0 g of the lecithin was added into the aqueous solution of        Tween 80 and dispersed by homogenization using a rotor        homogeniser for 5 minutes.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. The remaining lecithin was added to the oil followed by the        isopropyl alcohol and sonicated for 20 minutes at 40° C. to        dissolve the lecithin and remove the solvent.

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        with continuous homogenisation using a rotor homogeniser at        10,000 rpm. The remaining WFI was then added to make up to        weight.

Glyceryl monostearate 5.00 g Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 2.50 g Soybeanoil 10.00 g Water for Injection (WFI) up to 100 g

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Tween 80 was dissolved in 80% of the WFI by stirring.    -   2. The glyceryl monostearate was added into the aqueous solution        of Tween 80 and mixed well.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. Soybean oil.

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        with continuous homogenisation using a rotor homogeniser at        10,000 rpm. The remaining WFI was added to make up to weight.

Span 20 (Sorbitan monolaurate) 2.00 g Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 2.50 gSoybean oil 25.00 g Water for Injection (WFI) up to 100 g

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Tween 80 was dissolved in 80% of the WFI by stirring.    -   2. 1.0 g of the Span 20 was added into the aqueous solution of        Tween 80 and dispersed by homogenization using a rotor        homogeniser for 5 minutes.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. The remaining Span 20 was added to the oil and stirred for 20        minutes at 40° C. to dissolve Span 20.

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        with continuous homogenization using a rotor homogeniser at        10,000 rpm. The remaining WFI was added to make up to weight.

Example 6 Miniemulsion Preparation

A miniemulsion of 150 g was prepared containing lignocaine as follows:

Phosphotidyl choline 3.00 g 2.00% w/w Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 6.75 g4.50% w/w Soybean oil 21.75 g  14.50% w/w  Lignocaine 4.50 g 3.00% w/wWater for Injection (WFI) up to weight

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Tween 80 was added into 50 g of WFI and homogenized using a        rotor homogeniser for 5 minutes at 10,000-15,000 rpm.    -   2. Phosphotidyl choline was added to the aqueous solution of        Tween 80 and dispersed by homogeniser for 2 minutes or until        dispersed.    -   3. The aqueous solution was sterilized in an autoclave at        121° C. for 15 minutes.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. The soybean oil was sterilised at 215° C. for 2 hours or by        filtration through 0.2 μm filter.    -   2. Lignocaine was dissolved in the sterilised oil by sonication        for 20 minutes in warm water (40° C.).

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        by passing through 0.2 μm sterile filter and with continuous        homogenisation using a rotor homogeniser at 10,000 rpm. The        remaining WFI was added to make up to weight. The final mixture        was homogenized using a rotor homogeniser at 18,000 rpm for 10        minutes.

Example 7 Stability at Room Temperature and at 4° C.—LignocaineConcentration

To ensure that the lignocaine was not degraded over time, two separatebatches (“Batch 1” and “Batch 2”) of the emulsion formed according tothe method in Example 6 were tested for lignocaine stability when storedat room temperature and at 4° C. (ie. with and without refrigeration)over a period of 322 days. Stability was tested by measuring theconcentration of lignocaine in the preparation at a particular timepoint by HPLC and comparing this to the actual quantity added during theformation of the preparation. Briefly, lignocaine was extracted fromsamples of the preparations by liquid-liquid extraction at each timepoint. The method was optimised by using different solvent systems andwas also validated as per Pharmacopoeia guidelines.

Step 1: 0.5 g emulsion was weighed in 25 mL volumetric flask. Theemulsion sample was dissolved in isopropyl alcohol before being made upto volume with additional isopropyl alcohol (Solution A). 2 mL aliquotsof Solution A were then transferred to screw capped test tubes followedby addition 4 mL of dichloromethane. The mixture was gently shaken for4-5 times by inversion.

Step 2: 4 mL of 0.1 M HCl was added to the solvent mixture. Lignocainewas extracted in 0.1 M HCl by gentle shaking for 5 mins followed by 5mins centrifugation at 1000 rpm. The aqueous upper layer was removed andcollected in 20 mL volumetric flask (Solution N1). Step 2 was repeatedtwice more for a total of three times.

Step 3: Solution A/1 was made up to volume by 0.1M HCl. A small amountof the sample was filtered through 0.5 μm filter and injected for HPLCanalysis. The HPLC conditions were as follows:

1. Mobile Phase: . 25 mM Phosphoric Acid (2.883 g): 60%: 600 mL .Methanol 40%: 400 mL . Total Volume 1000%: 1 L 2. Flow rate: 1 mL/min 3.Wavelength: 210 nm 4. Column (Alltech): Apollo C18, 5 μm, Length: 50 mmID: 4.6 mm 5. Integration Parameters: Area of rejection: 10000Threshold: 3 Peak width: 0.05

The concentration of lignocaine in the sample was compared to theoriginal concentration of lignocaine in the preparation and wasexpressed as a percentage. As shown in FIG. 4, the degradation oflignocaine was occurring at approximately the same rate in thepreparations stored at room temperature and the preparations stored at4° C. Accordingly, this result indicates that the miniemulsion preparedby the method describes has a long shelf-life as it is stable andpreserves the concentration of agents when stored at room temperatureover an extended period of time.

Example 8 Stability at Room Temperature and at 4° C.—Particle Size

Batches 1 and 2, prepared as described in Examples 6 and 7, were alsotested for stability when stored at room temperature and at 4° C. (ie.with and without refrigeration) over a period of 236 days by measuringparticle size. Particle size was analysed by Mastersizer 2000 fromMalvern and the median diameter, where 50% of the distribution is aboveand 50% is below a diameter (d(0.5)) and where 90% of the distributionis below a diameter (d(0.9)), was determined. As shown below in Tables 3and 4, there was almost no difference observed between mean distributiond(0.5) and d(0.9) in the preparations stored at room temperature and thepreparations stored at 4° C.

TABLE 3 Batch 1 At Room Temperature At 4° C. Days d (0.5) d (0.9) d(0.5) d (0.9) 19 0.699 1.309 0.699 1.309 145 0.2 0.369 0.242 0.458 2361.191 2.869 1.186 2.955

TABLE 4 Batch 2 At Room Temperature At 4° C. Days d (0.5) d (0.9) d(0.5) d (0.9) 19 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 145 0.2 0.369 0.22 0.404 236 1.1682.752 1.164 2.739

Example 9 Characterisation of Miniemulsion: Particle Size Report

A sample of the miniemulsion prepared by the method described in Example6 was analysed by Mastersizer 2000 from Malvern. A scaled up batch of 1kg was also prepared using the method in Example 6 (except the additionof Preparation B to Preparation A was aided by a peristaltic pump andnot added dropwise) and analysed. Briefly, 2-3 drops emulsion was addeddrop wise in 100 mL of deionised water. The results of the test areshown in FIGS. 5-7. Almost 100% (99.24%) of the particles analysed fromthe 150 g batch had a size of less than 1 μm or less. This was slightlyhigher than in the 1 kg batch (85.00%). Further, approximately 50% ofthe particles in the 150 g batch were between 200 nm and 1 μm andapproximately 85% of the particles in the 1 kg batch were between 200 nmand 1 μm.

The particles in the 150 kg batch were on average slightly smaller(d(0.5)=0.202 μm) than those in the 1 kg batch (d(0.5)=0.619 μm), whichis thought to be due to a technical sampling issue. Nonetheless, theseresults indicate that the miniemulsion could be successfully scaled-upto a commercial batch size without significantly effecting particlesize.

Example 10 Stability of Miniemulsion Prepared in a Batch Size of 1 kg

The stability of the 1 kg batch was also tested to ensure the emulsionwould remain stable in its scaled-up form. Several parameters ofstability were examined and the results are shown in Table 5.

Particle size was analysed by Mastersizer 2000 from Malvern and themedian diameter, where 50% of the distribution is above and 50% is belowa diameter (d(0.5)), was determined. The concentration of lignocaine (%w/w) and % assay of lignocaine were determined using the HPLC methoddescribed in Example 7.

The peroxide value was determined using the standardised method A fromthe British Pharmacopoeia Volume IV, Appendix XF 2010; London: HerMajesty's Stationery Office for the Department of Health. Briefly, 2.50g of the emulsion was placed in a 250 ml conical flask fitted with aground-glass stopper. 30 ml of a mixture of 2 volumes of chloroform Rand 3 volumes of glacial acetic acid was added and the flask shakenuntil the emulsion dissolves. 0.5 ml of saturated potassium iodidesolution R was then added and the flask shaken again for exactly 1 minbefore 30 ml of water was added. 0.01 M sodium thiosulphate was titratedinto the solution slowly with continuous vigorous shaking until theyellow colour was almost discharged. 5 ml of starch solution was thenadded and the titration continued, shaking vigorously, until the colourwas discharged (n1 ml of 0.01 M sodium thiosulphate). A blank test wasthen carried out under the same conditions (n2 ml of 0.01 M sodiumthiosulphate). The volume of 0.01 M sodium thiosulphate used in theblank titration must not exceed 0.1 ml.

Calculation:

${Ip} = \frac{10\left( {n_{1} - n_{2}} \right)}{m}$

The pH of the emulsion was measured by a digital pH meter. The pH meterwas calibrated using a standard buffer solution (pH 4 and 7) beforemeasuring emulsion samples. The pH was also tested using Duo test pHmeter.

TABLE 5 Time 3 6 9 14 15 18 30 Test Months Months Months Months MonthsMonths Months Concentration of 2.99 2.89 2.77 2.85 2.99 — — Lignocaine(% w/w) % Assay of 99.74 96.39 92.24 94.94 99.7 — — Lignocaine MeanParticle 0.619 0.616 0.650 0.669 0.669 0.635 0.668 Size (0.5) pH ofEmulsion 8.4 8.65 8 7.75 7.75 7.45 7.10 Peroxide Value of — 3 2 1.55 41.5 1.89 Emulsion (mEq/kg)

As can be seen from Table 5, none of the parameters changedsignificantly over the 15 month period, indicating that the emulsion,even when scaled-up to 1 kg, is stable for over 2 years.

Importantly, the mean particle size does not increase over time. Anincrease in particle size is a key indicator of emulsion instability.However, even after 30 months (914 days) at room temperature, theincrease in particle size is negligible (FIG. 8). Accordingly, theseresults show that the emulsion is stable for more than 2 years and 6months at room temperature.

Oxidation of oil is another key indicator of emulsion in stability. Asshown above, the peroxide value does not vary greatly over time,indicating that the oil is not oxidizing in the emulsion. The smallvariation in peroxide seen is due to the nature of analysis. Further,all values are in agreement with the Pharmacopeia standard forInjectable products.

Example 11 Miniemulsion Preparation Comprising 40% w/w Lipid

A miniemulsion of 100 g was prepared containing lignocaine HCl,salicylic acid and eucalyptus oil as follows:

Phosphotidyl choline 1.00 g 2.00% w/w Tween 80 (Polysorbate 80) 2.00 g4.00% w/w Coconut oil 10.00 g  20.00% w/w  Salicylic acid 1.00 g 2.00%w/w Lignocaine HCL 0.50 g 1.00% w/w Benzoic Acid 0.05 g 0.10% w/wIsopropyl alcohol 2.00 g 4.00% w/w Liquid Paraffin 10.00 g  20.00% w/w Water for Injection (WFI) up to weight

Preparation A:

-   -   1. Lignocaine HCl and benzoic acid were dissolved in 20 g of        water.    -   2. Tween 80 was added into 20 g of WFI containing lignocaine HCl        and benzoic acid and homogenized using a rotor homogeniser for 5        minutes at 10,000-15,000 rpm.    -   3. Phosphotidyl choline was added to the aqueous solution of        Tween 80 and dispersed by homogenized using a rotor homogeniser        for 20 minutes or until dispersed.

Preparation B:

-   -   1. Coconut oil was melted at 40° C. and mixed with liquid        paraffin with gentle stirring.    -   2. Salicylic acid was dissolved in the oil by sonication with 2        mL of isopropyl alcohol for 20 minutes in warm water (40° C.).

Mixing A & B:

-   -   Preparation B was added into Preparation A drop by drop (slowly)        with continuous homogenisation using a rotor homogeniser at        10,000 rpm. The remaining WFI was added to make up to weight.        The final mixture was homogenized at 18,000 rpm for 10 minutes        (most of the isopropyl alcohol is assumed to be evaporated        during this process).

A sample of the miniemulsion was analysed by Mastersizer 2000 fromMalvern. Briefly, 2-3 drops of emulsion were added drop wise in 100 mLof deionised water. The results of the test are shown in FIG. 9.

This example also demonstrates the ability for the miniemulsion toincorporate hydrophilic agents (lignocaine HCL) and lipophilic agents(salicylic acid).

Example 12 Use of the Miniemulsion to Treat Pain

The scaled-up 1 kg batch described above in Examples 9 and 10 was usedto treat pain in patients receiving skin donor site dressing changes.The emulsion was delivered as a spray (“NS Spray”) and tested against atraditional pain spray containing 4% xylocaine (“Xylocaine Spray”).

Patients were randomly allocated to receive treatment with either theXylocaine spray or NS Spray. One hour after the procedure patients gavea final pain score and rated their overall satisfaction. The patientsscored pain on a scale of from 10 (no reduction in severity of pain) to0 (complete relief of pain) and a mean score equal to or greater than agiven value is deemed to constitute effective pain-relief. A mean scoreof 5.0 or less and, more preferably, 2.0 or less in the test was deemedto constitute effective pain relief.

Example 13 Pain Score Analysis

All patients recorded a pain score of less than 5 for their Final painscore (FIG. 10). As can be seen from FIG. 10, the NS Spray treatment wasslightly more effective at reducing pain compared with the XylocaineSpray.

Patients were also asked on a scale of 1 to 5 how satisfied they werewith the treatment (where 1 is very satisfied and 5 is veryunsatisfied). Patients treated with the NS Spray gave an averagesatisfaction score of 1.4 (FIG. 11). Accordingly, patients were verysatisfied with the NS Spray treatment and the NS Spray managed pain atleast as well as the standard treatment and possibly had a longerlasting effect.

1-22. (canceled)
 23. A method for forming a miniemulsion comprising: a.providing an aqueous phase comprising a hydrophilic surfactant dispersedin water; b. dispersing a lipophilic surfactant in said aqueous phase toprovide a first phase; c. providing a second phase comprising a lipid;d. adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner adapted toform a miniemulsion, wherein said miniemulsion comprises emulsifiedparticles having a mean diameter of 1 μm or less.
 24. The method ofclaim 23, wherein steps a.-d. are conducted at a temperature of lessthan about 80° C. and at an atmospheric pressure of less than about1,000 kPa.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein said miniemulsioncomprises less than 10% w/w surfactant.
 26. The method of claim 23,wherein said miniemulsion comprises between about 1% w/w and about 5%w/w lipophilic surfactant.
 27. The method of claim 23, wherein saidminiemulsion comprises between about 0.5% w/w and about 5% w/whydrophilic surfactant.
 28. The method of claim 23, wherein saidminiemulsion comprises between about 0.5% w/w and about 40% w/w lipid.29. The method of claim 23, wherein said emulsified particles have amean diameter of between about 10 nm and about 900 nm.
 30. The method ofclaim 23, wherein said emulsified particles have a mean diameter ofabout 600 nm.
 31. The method of claim 23, wherein said emulsifiedparticles are stable at a temperature greater than 4° C. for at least 1year.
 32. The method of claim 23, wherein said manner adapted to form aminiemulsion comprises adding the second phase to the first phase as acontinuous flow or continuous stream during continuous mixing.
 33. Themethod of claim 23, wherein said continuous mixing is performed by arotor homogeniser at a speed of between about 5,000 rpm and about 20,000rpm.
 34. The method of claim 23, wherein the miniemulsion furthercomprises a bioactive agent.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein saidminiemulsion comprises between about 0.2% w/w about and 15% w/wbioactive agent.
 36. A composition comprising emulsified particlesproduced by the method of claim
 23. 37. A method for forming a deliverysystem for bioactive agents comprising; a. providing an aqueous phasecomprising a hydrophilic surfactant dispersed in water; b. dispersinglipophilic surfactant in said aqueous phase to provide a first phase; c.providing a second phase comprising lipid and a bioactive agent; d.adding the second phase to the first phase in a manner adapted to form aminiemulsion, wherein said delivery system comprises emulsifiedparticles having an mean diameter of 1 μm or less.
 38. The method ofclaim 37, wherein the bioactive agent is a lipophilic pharmaceutical.39. The method of claim 38, wherein the lipophilic pharmaceutical islidocaine.
 40. The method of claim 37, wherein said delivery system isadministered topically, enterally, or parenterally.
 41. The method ofclaim 40, wherein the topical administration is via aerosol or spray.42. A method for forming a delivery system for bioactive agentscomprising; a. providing an aqueous phase comprising polysorbate 80dispersed in water; b. dispersing phosphotidylcholine in said aqueousphase to provide a first phase; c. providing a second phase comprisingsoybean oil and lidocaine; d. adding the second phase to the first phasein a manner adapted to form a miniemulsion comprising between about 0.5%w/w and about 5% w/w polysorbate 80, between about 1% w/w and about 5%w/w phosphotidylcholine, between about 0.5% w/w and about 25% w/wsoybean oil, and between about 0.2% w/w and about 5% w/w lidocaine,wherein said delivery system comprises emulsified particles having anmean diameter of 1 μm or less.
 43. A composition comprising emulsifiedparticles produced by the method of claim
 37. 44. A method of treatingor relieving pain in a subject in need thereof by administering to saidsubject an effect amount of the composition of claim 43.